Investigating the Impact of Time Constraints on Sudoku Solving: A Multimodal Analysis of Cognitive and Affective States

Abstract

Time constraint during problem solving is an active area of research and has been found to affect performance, emotion, and cognition in students. In this study, we use galvanic skin response (GSR), eye tracking, and retrospective interviews to investigate such effects during Sudoku problem-solving. A within-subjects experimental design was employed, where participants solved 4x4 Sudoku puzzles with and without time constraints. The results indicated a significant increase in skin conductance and pupil diameters, with large effect sizes (GSR and pupil diameter values, Cohen’s d = 3.09 and 1.98, respectively), reflecting substantial rises in stress and cognitive load under time constraints. Analysis of gaze patterns and interview responses revealed no notable change in problem-solving strategies between conditions, indicating stability in individual approaches. Together, these findings contribute to the understanding of the impact of time constraints on problem-solving behavior with implications for designing adaptive learning systems and educational practices that optimize cognitive load management and enhance learner engagement.